The question of whether Count Camillo di Cavour truly unified Italy has long been debated by historians. The 19th-century struggle for Italian unification, also known as the Risorgimento, was a multifaceted movement involving diplomacy, war, revolution, and political maneuvering. Cavour, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), is often credited with masterminding much of the process. However, his role must be understood in relation to other key figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II. Understanding Cavour’s involvement helps clarify whether he can be seen as the primary architect of a unified Italy or simply one of many important players.
The Political Landscape of Pre-Unification Italy
Before unification, the Italian peninsula was fragmented into several kingdoms, duchies, and territories, including the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, the Austrian-controlled Lombardy and Venetia, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. These divisions were reinforced by foreign dominance, primarily Austrian, and by internal disagreements between republicans, monarchists, and nationalists. Against this backdrop, Cavour emerged as a skilled statesman with a pragmatic vision for Italian unity under a constitutional monarchy.
Cavour’s Political Strategy and Realpolitik
Cavour was not a revolutionary. Unlike Garibaldi or Mazzini, he did not believe in a mass uprising or radical republicanism. Instead, he practiced realpolitik a political philosophy emphasizing practical objectives over ideological goals. His approach was to gradually expand Sardinia’s influence and unify Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour’s diplomacy and political cunning made him the ideal negotiator with European powers like France and Britain, which were key in legitimizing Italian aims on the international stage.
Key Events Led by Cavour Toward Unification
Cavour’s influence is particularly visible in three major developments:
- Modernization of Piedmont: Cavour spearheaded economic and infrastructure reforms, building railways, expanding trade, and fostering industrial development. This made Sardinia a model of modern governance among Italian states.
- Alliance with France: Cavour’s diplomatic maneuvering culminated in an alliance with Napoleon III of France. In exchange for supporting France in the Crimean War, Sardinia earned a seat at the peace table and international recognition. Later, this relationship was crucial in the Second War of Italian Independence against Austria.
- War with Austria (1859): With French military support, Sardinia fought Austria and succeeded in annexing Lombardy. This marked a significant territorial gain and a symbolic step toward Italian unity.
Diplomatic Unification Through Northern and Central Italy
After defeating Austria, Cavour cleverly facilitated plebiscites in central Italian states like Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, leading to their voluntary unification with Sardinia. Cavour’s skill in diplomacy ensured that these mergers were seen as legal and peaceful, winning over both local populations and foreign powers. His work essentially brought northern and central Italy under the control of the Piedmontese crown.
Garibaldi’s Campaign in the South and Cavour’s Response
While Cavour excelled in diplomacy and political maneuvering, he had less control over the southern part of Italy. In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the Thousand to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi’s military success was astonishing, and he quickly gained popular support. However, his republican ideals clashed with Cavour’s vision of a constitutional monarchy.
Cavour, fearing that Garibaldi might declare a republic or incite foreign intervention, moved quickly. He sent the Piedmontese army to the Papal States and met Garibaldi in Naples. Though the two men disagreed politically, Garibaldi handed over control of southern Italy to Victor Emmanuel II. This act symbolically and practically unified the North and South, and Cavour played a key role in managing the transition.
The Creation of the Kingdom of Italy
On March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as king. Cavour became the new nation’s first Prime Minister. Though he died just a few months later, his vision had largely been realized. Yet, many historians point out that the new kingdom was unified politically but not socially or economically. The North-South divide remained stark, and many regions felt alienated from the central government in Turin and later Rome.
Limitations and Criticism of Cavour’s Role
Although Cavour was instrumental in uniting large parts of Italy, his strategy had limitations:
- Neglect of the Masses: Cavour focused on elite negotiations and foreign diplomacy. He did not include popular movements or address the needs of peasants and workers.
- Southern Discontent: After unification, the South experienced economic decline and social unrest. Critics argue that Cavour did not prepare an inclusive vision for the entire peninsula.
- Religious Conflict: The annexation of the Papal States and the confrontation with the Pope left a lingering rift between the Catholic Church and the Italian state, a conflict Cavour could not fully resolve.
Collaboration with Other Figures
It is essential to acknowledge that Italian unification was a collective achievement. Garibaldi, Mazzini, and King Victor Emmanuel II each played vital roles. Cavour’s genius lay in his ability to harness the energy of these diverse figures and align their efforts often behind the scenes to serve the larger goal of unity. Without Garibaldi’s military courage or Mazzini’s ideological groundwork, Cavour’s plans may not have succeeded.
Did Cavour Unify Italy?
Count Camillo di Cavour was a central figure in the unification of Italy, but he did not act alone. He laid the political, economic, and diplomatic groundwork that made unification feasible. Through strategic alliances, pragmatic reforms, and deft management of crises, he expanded the Kingdom of Sardinia into a nucleus for a unified Italy. However, the contributions of Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Victor Emmanuel II were equally indispensable. Therefore, it is more accurate to say that Cavour unified Italy in part through planning, negotiation, and vision but the complete picture includes multiple architects of Italian unity.