In the late 19th century, the strategic and economic importance of the Hawaiian Islands became a focal point of American foreign policy in the Pacific. One of the most influential figures in the annexation of Hawaii was John L. Stevens, the U.S. Minister to the Hawaiian Kingdom. His motivations, actions, and justifications for supporting the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy and promoting annexation have remained controversial. Understanding John Stevens’ reasons for annexation involves examining the political climate of the time, economic interests, and his personal convictions about American influence and civilization.
Political Motivations for Annexation
Strategic Position in the Pacific
One of the primary political reasons John Stevens supported the annexation of Hawaii was its strategic location. Situated roughly halfway between the continental United States and Asia, Hawaii offered a critical refueling and naval base for American ships. As tensions and competition with other imperial powers such as Britain and Japan increased, securing Hawaii was seen as a vital move to maintain American dominance in the Pacific.
Fear of Foreign Influence
Stevens and other American officials were concerned that if the United States did not act, another world power might gain control of Hawaii. Britain had a long history of influence in the Pacific, and Japanese migration to the islands was growing rapidly. To Stevens, annexation was not only a proactive step but also a defensive measure against perceived threats to American interests.
American Expansionism and Manifest Destiny
The ideology of Manifest Destiny the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the continent and beyond played a significant role in Stevens’ thinking. He believed it was America’s right and responsibility to spread its system of governance and civilization. The annexation of Hawaii was viewed as a natural extension of this policy, aligning with the broader American trend of overseas expansion.
Economic Interests in Hawaii
American Business Influence
By the time John Stevens arrived in Hawaii, American business interests, particularly in sugar plantations, dominated the islands’ economy. Wealthy American planters were frustrated by Queen Liliuokalani’s attempts to restore native Hawaiian control and limit foreign power. Stevens sympathized with these business leaders, many of whom had close ties to U.S. markets and politicians.
Eliminating Tariff Disadvantages
One of the main concerns for American planters was the McKinley Tariff of 1890, which removed the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar in the U.S. market. This hurt their profits and made annexation more appealing, as it would integrate Hawaii into the U.S. economy and remove such trade barriers. Stevens supported annexation partly to protect these economic interests.
Economic Stability through U.S. Control
Stevens believed that political stability, necessary for economic growth, could be ensured only through U.S. governance. He argued that native Hawaiian rule, especially under Queen Liliuokalani, was unstable and would deter American investments. Annexation would, in his view, provide legal and financial security that would benefit both Hawaiian residents and American investors.
Personal and Ideological Beliefs
Belief in Anglo-Saxon Superiority
Stevens was influenced by the racial and cultural attitudes of his time. He believed that Anglo-Saxon governance and culture were superior and that extending them to Hawaii would uplift the islands. His justification for annexation included the belief that the native population would benefit from American education, religion, and political systems.
Support for Republican Government
Stevens was critical of monarchies, viewing them as outdated and inherently unstable. He favored a republican form of government and saw Queen Liliuokalani’s rule as a hindrance to progress. His support for the provisional government that replaced her was rooted in his conviction that it aligned better with democratic values, even though the monarchy had deep cultural and historical roots in Hawaiian society.
Religious Convictions
As a Congregationalist, Stevens was part of a Protestant missionary tradition that had long been active in Hawaii. Many missionaries, and their descendants, supported annexation and saw it as a way to solidify Christian influence. Stevens often echoed this sentiment, framing annexation as a moral duty to bring religious and moral enlightenment to the Hawaiian people.
The Role of John Stevens in the Overthrow
Military Support for the Coup
John Stevens played a direct role in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. He ordered U.S. Marines to land from the USS Boston under the pretense of protecting American lives and property. In reality, this show of force intimidated royalists and helped secure the success of the coup led by Sanford B. Dole and other American settlers. This action was taken without official authorization and later condemned by President Grover Cleveland.
Recognition of the Provisional Government
Immediately after the queen was deposed, Stevens officially recognized the provisional government as the legitimate authority in Hawaii. His rapid recognition added legitimacy to the coup and gave the new regime the confidence to seek formal annexation by the United States. His actions were seen by many as overreach and sparked a national debate about American imperialism.
Controversy and Investigation
Following the overthrow, President Cleveland launched the Blount Report, an investigation that concluded Stevens had acted improperly and that the coup had not been supported by the majority of Hawaiians. Cleveland called for the restoration of the monarchy, but the provisional government refused. Although Stevens retired shortly after, his actions had already set in motion the eventual annexation of Hawaii in 1898.
Long-Term Impact and Historical Debate
Hawaiian Sovereignty and Cultural Loss
The annexation of Hawaii led to deep and lasting consequences for native Hawaiians. Loss of sovereignty, suppression of the Hawaiian language, and the imposition of American laws and customs deeply affected Hawaiian identity. Stevens’ vision of progress came at the cost of a vibrant indigenous culture and a once-independent kingdom.
American Imperialism and Precedent
Stevens’ actions in Hawaii foreshadowed future American interventions in foreign governments. The annexation became a model for U.S. imperialism, showing how military presence, business interests, and ideological narratives could be used to justify the expansion of American territory and influence.
Legacy of John Stevens
John Stevens remains a controversial figure in U.S. and Hawaiian history. To some, he was a patriot advancing American interests and protecting national security. To others, he was an agent of imperialism who ignored democratic principles in pursuit of economic and racial superiority. His legacy is a reminder of the complex interplay between power, ideology, and historical consequences.
John Stevens’ reasons for supporting the annexation of Hawaii were multifaceted, rooted in geopolitical strategy, economic interests, and personal convictions. His involvement in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy illustrates how individual actors can shape the course of history, for better or worse. While his actions advanced the cause of American expansionism, they also contributed to the loss of Hawaiian independence and the long struggle for native rights and recognition. Examining Stevens’ motivations offers critical insight into the broader history of U.S. foreign policy and the enduring impact of imperialism.